• Electric-field driven jetting: early demonstrations show living cells can be processed with electrified jets at field strengths up to roughly 2 kV/mm, enabling deposition and patterning of cell suspensions while monitoring viability and function [1], [2].

• Microfabrication and surface engineering enable long-term, spatially controlled cell placement, from amphiphilic comb-polymer micropatterning to cell-containing multilayers and microstructures that support stratified bioactive tissues [7], [9], [18], [5], [3].

• Microfluidic platforms create defined cellular microenvironments for encapsulation, migration studies, and culture, enabling controlled flows, gradients, and modular integration with hydrogel and alginate systems [11], [15], [14].

• Dielectrophoresis-based cell handling offers label-free selection or sorting by cell-cycle state and precise manipulation within microchannels, supporting noninvasive biophysical cell control [10], [6].

• Intracellular nanostructure integration and biomaterial encapsulation embed functional elements inside cells or cells within matrices, enabling controlled biochemical manipulation and viability preservation [4], [8].